Abstract
To address the current biodiversity crisis, various conservation approaches have been implemented worldwide to engage local communities in biodiversity conservation. In Madagascar, a biodiversity hotspot, these approaches include protected areas, community-based conservation, and market-based conservation. However, their respective ecological, socio-economic, and socio-cultural effectiveness remains poorly understood. This study aimed to fill this knowledge gap through a systematic literature review. Out of 480 publications on forest conservation in Madagascar identified through standardized searches and screening, 156 were selected for indepth full-text analysis. By combining quantitative and qualitative approaches, our results revealed generally positive ecological outcomes but negative socio-economic and cultural impacts. While the literature presents mixed findings on the effectiveness of conservation actions in reducing deforestation, protected forests have demonstrated improved biodiversity outcomes. However, these ecological gains come at a cost to local communities, especially the poorest households, who often receive inadequate compensation. Alternative livelihood activities proposed by conservation programs are often ill-suited to local contexts, and local elites tend to capture most conservation benefits, exacerbating inequalities and local conflicts. All three conservation approaches display similar trends, indicating recurring challenges regardless of the strategy employed. The literature highlights strategies to achieve more effective conservation while balancing ecological outcomes and human well-being. These include sustained investment in local conservation actions, genuine co-management frameworks, community empowerment, and stronger collaboration between researchers and local stakeholders. Although focused on Madagascar, the challenges and solutions identified in this study have broader global relevance for biodiversity conservation stakeholders.