Abstract
Climate change and urbanization are two of the most prominent global drivers of biodiversity and ecosystem change. Fully understanding, predicting and mitigating the biological impacts of climate change and urbanization are not possible in isolation, especially given their growing importance in shaping human society. Here we develop an integrated framework for understanding and predicting the joint effects of climate change and urbanization on ecology, evolution and their eco-evolutionary interactions. We review five examples of interactions and then present five hypotheses that offer opportunities for predicting biodiversity and its interaction with human social and cultural systems under future scenarios. We also discuss research opportunities and ways to design resilient landscapes that address both biological and societal concerns.</p><p>Climate change and urbanization are two of the most important human impacts on the planet 1,2 . The global climate has warmed 1.2 °C during the past 120 years and could warm another 4 °C by 2100 1 . Besides warming, climate change is also altering precipitation, surface hydrology and sea levels 1 . Concurrently, people increasingly live in cities 3 , with 68% expected to be urban dwellers by 2050 2 . Urbanization, defined here as encompassing both demographic and associated physical changes 4 , is rapidly altering natural landscapes.