Abstract
Studying energetics of marine top predators is essential to understand their role within food-webs andmechanisms associated with their survival and population dynamics. Several methods exist to estimateenergy expenditure in captive and free-ranging animals. However, most of them are difficult to implement,restrained to specific periods, and are consequently inappropriate for seabirds. Supplementary andcomplementary approaches are therefore needed, and the use of modelling appears as an excellent optionallowing energetic studies when field data collection is challenging. Currently three main energetics modelsare used, with various degrees of complexity and accuracy: allometric equations, time–energy-budgetanalyses and thermodynamic models. However, a comparison of their practicability and accuracy was stilllacking. Here, we present an overview of these 3 model types, their characteristics, advantages anddisadvantages, and areas of application in seabirds. We then investigate their accuracy by using them inparallel for the same dataset, and by comparing outputs with direct measurements (doubly-labelled watertechnique). We show that, when detailed data are available, time–energy–budget analysis is the best modelto accurately predict seabird energy expenditures. Conversely, thermodynamic modelling allows reasonablyaccurate calculations when field data are scarce, and is therefore ideal to study energetics during the interbreedingseason.