Résumé
By the end of the 20th century, many of the coastal lagoons along the FrenchMediterranean coast showed insufficient water quality and degraded ecosystem statesdue to anthropogenic impacts. Among these, nutrient over-enrichment, resulting ineutrophication, has been a major concern. The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD)has initiated public action to improve their water quality and ecosystem state using anapproach rooted in restoration ecology. Here we analyze how this has been appliedfor the coastal lagoons in South France, considering eutrophication as an exampleof ecosystem degradation and oligotrophication as the corresponding trajectory forecological restoration of the eutrophied coastal lagoons. Oligotrophication trajectories,initiated by the reduction of external nutrient loading, have resulted in a quick recovery(i.e., within 3 years) of integrative water column variables (Chlorophyll a, total N and P)and phytoplankton. Starting from hypertrophic systems, the oligotrophication trajectoryis described by a sequence of three ecosystem states dominated respectively by (i)phytoplankton with bare non-vegetated sediments, (ii) opportunistic macroalgae, (iii)angiosperm and perennial macroalgae, punctuated by regime shifts between theseecosystem states. Nevertheless, the latter regime shift has not been observed for themost degraded ecosystems after 10-years oligotrophication. The N and P accumulatedin sediments during eutrophication may also retard the ecological restoration. Inshallow freshwater lakes, the phytoplankton-dominated and the angiosperm-dominatedstates are also characteristic for highly degraded and fully restored ecosystemsstates, respectively. In contrast, opportunistic macroalgae do not bloom in thesesystems. Hence, the alternative stable state model, used successfully for these lakes,cannot be applied straightforwardly for coastal lagoons. To be successful, ecologicalrestoration should consider the legislative and societal questions as according theDPSIR framework it typically is a response of society. The conservation-oriented HabitatsDirective systematically applies to coastal lagoons and the Birds Directive in somecases as well. The WFD approach is complementary to these more conventional natureconservation approaches. Collectively, local citizens and highly involved stakeholdersstrongly value the coastal lagoons and attribute very high importance to their regulatingecosystem services (ESs), while differences between stakeholder profiles are related todifferent perceptions and appreciations of cultural ESs. Hence, coastal lagoon ESs arevery important for the different stakeholders and public policies aiming at the ecologicalrestoration of these ecosystems may count on public support.